hydrogen-car

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hydrogen-car: A hydrogen-car is a vehicle that uses a fuel cell to power an electric drive system. A fuel cell sports car is a future vehicle anticipated to arrive with the advent of sophisticated hydrogen fuel cell technology. Although the primary impetus for fuel cell research is cleaner automobile emissions, overall vehicle performance is also a factor. Current fuel cell cars run on relatively low power (80-100kW) electric motors, but more powerful motors are capable of dramatic performance even when compared to fossil fuel engines. For instance, the Venturi Fetish is an electric (plug-in) car that achieves 0-100km/hour times of under five seconds, which has traditionally been the acceleration territory of supercars. Production of fuel cell vehicles has been limited thus far to prototypes and fleet vehicles aimed at efficiency. However, several news sources have cited UK-based Morgan Motor Company as being involved in a project to build a fuel cell sports car based on the Morgan Aero 8. The endeavor also involves Cranfield University, Oxford University, and defense technology firm QinetiQ, among others. The project has been tentatively titled LIFEcar. A Hydrogen vehicle is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for locomotion. These cars generally use the hydrogen in one of two methods: combustion or fuel-cell conversion. In combustion, the hydrogen is \"burned\" in engines in fundamentally the same method as traditional gasoline cars. In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is turned into electricity through fuel cells which then power electric motors. Hydrogen can be obtained from decomposition of methane (natural gas), coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquid petroleum products, biomass (biomass gasification), high heat sources (by a process called thermolysis), or from water using electricity (electrolysis). A primary benefit of using pure hydrogen as a power source would be that it uses oxygen from the air to produce water vapor as exhaust (and very little nitrogen oxides from the nitrogen in the air when burning at high temperatures). Another benefit is that, theoretically, the source of pollution created today by burning fossil fuels could be moved to centralized power plants, where the byproducts of burning fossil fuels can be better controlled. However, as explained below, the technical challenges required to realize this benefit may not be solved for many decades, if ever. The major challenges in using hydrogen in cars, are the very high costs and the low energy efficiencies, with low probabilities so far, for successful solutions for the several challenges. Therefore, only a few demonstration vehicles have been made at high cost. See The Hype about Hydrogen and hydrogen economy. In many hydrogen fuel cells, Hydrogen does not act as a pre-existing source of energy like fossil fuels, but a carrier, much like a battery. It is renewable in a realistic time scale, unlike fossil fuels which can take millions of years to replenish. (A few dispute this. See Abiogenic petroleum origin.) The largest potential advantage is that it could be produced and consumed continuously, using solar, wind and nuclear power for electrolysis. However, current hydrogen production methods utilizing hydrocarbons produce more pollution and cost per mile driven, than would direct consumption of the same hydrocarbon fuel (e.g., methane or gasoline) in a modern internal combustion engine. To reduce pollution and reliance on fossil fuels, sustainable and cost effective methods of hydrogen production and containment would have to be improved beyond current capabilities. The costs of producing, containing, and distributing hydrogen are likely to go up as the costs of fossil fuels goes up from declining supply and increasing demand. A small number of experimental hydrogen cars currently exist, and a significant amount of research is underway to try to make the technology viable. The common internal combustion engine, usually fueled with gasoline (petrol) or diesel liquids, can be converted to run on gaseous hydrogen. However, the more energy efficient use of hydrogen involves the use of fuel cells and electric motors instead of a traditional engine. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen inside the fuel cells, which produces electricity to power the motors. One primary area of research is hydrogen storage, to try to increase the range of hydrogen vehicles, while reducing the weight, energy consumption, and complexity of the storage systems. Two primary methods of storage are metal hydrides and compression. High speed cars, buses, submarines, and space rockets already can run on hydrogen, in various forms at great expense. There is even a working toy model car that runs on solar power, using a reversible fuel cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy. One could easily substitute a rechargeable battery for the toy hydrogen system and show far more cost and energy efficiency for the battery than the hydrogen system, as a science fair project. While fuel cells themselves are potentially highly energy efficient, and working prototypes were made by Roger E. Billings in the 1960s, at least four major obstacles exist in the development and use of a fuel cell-powered hydrogen car. The first problem is that hydrogen has a very low density. Even when the fuel is stored as a liquid in a cryogenic tank or in a pressurized tank as a gas, the amount of energy that can be stored in the space available is limited, and it takes energy to compress the gas and make the container, and hydrogen cars therefore have limited range compared to their conventional counterparts. Some research has been done into using special crystalline materials to store hydrogen at greater densities and with margins. Instead of storing molecular hydrogen on-board, some have advocated using hydrogen reformers to extract the hydrogen from more traditional fuels including methane, gasoline, and ethanol. Many environmentalists are irked by this idea, as it promotes continued dependence on fossil fuels (at least in the case of gasoline). However, vehicles using reformed gasoline or ethanol to power fuel cells could still be more efficient than vehicles running internal combustion engines, if the technology can be invented. The second major problem that used to plague hydrogen fuel cells involves the high cost of making reliable fuel cells that would provide electric power in a hydrogen car. Scientists are also working hard to figure out how to produce inexpensive fuel cells that are also robust enough to survive the bumps and vibrations that all automobiles have to handle. Furthermore, freezing conditions have to be handled because fuel cells do produce water and utilize moist air with varying water content. Most fuel cell designs are fragile and can\'t survive in such environments. Also, many designs require rare substances such as platinum as a catalyst in order to work properly, and the catalyst can be contaminated by impurities in the hydrogen supply. However, within the past few years, a nickel-tin catalyst has been developed which may lower the cost of hydrogen fuel to help possibly make a fuel cell car an economically viable car. The third \"problem\" is due to the fact that while hydrogen can be used as an energy carrier, it is not an energy source. It still must be produced from fossil fuels, or from some other energy source, with a net loss of energy (since the conversion from energy to hydrogen storage and back to energy is not 100% efficient). Using hydrogen in a fuel cell is nearly twice as efficient as traditional combustion engines, which only have an efficiency of 15-25%. Hydrogen fuel cells can achieve thermodynamic efficiencies of 50-60%. The percentage will never be 100% because of the second law of thermodynamics. Fourth, in order to distribute hydrogen to cars, the current gasoline fueling system would need to be replaced, or at least significantly supplemented with hydrogen fuel stations. Since all energy sources have drawbacks, a shift into hydrogen powered vehicles may require difficult political decisions on how to produce this energy. The US Energy Department has already announced a plan to produce hydrogen directly from Generation IV reactors. These nuclear powerplants would be capable of producing hydrogen and electricity at the same time. The main problem with the nuclear-to-hydrogen economy is that hydrogen is ultimately only a carrier of electricity. The costs associated with electrolysis and transportation and storage of hydrogen may make this method uneconomical in comparison to direct utilization of electricity. Electric power transmission is about 95% efficient and the infrastructure is already in place, so tackling the current drawbacks of electric cars or hybrid vehicles may be easier than developing a whole new hydrogen infrastructure that mimics the obsolete model of oil distribution. Continuing research on cheaper, higher capacity batteries is needed. Direct transmission though electric rails, for example in a guided vehicle configuration such as PRT, could make electric vehicles more economic than hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Recently, alternative methods of creating hydrogen directly from sunlight and water through a metallic catalyst have been announced. This may provide a cheap, direct conversion of solar energy into hydrogen, a very clean solution for hydrogen production Sodium boro hydride (NaBH4) a chemical compound may hold future promise due to the ease at which hydrogen can be stored under normal atmospheric pressures in automobiles that have fuel cells. United States President George W. Bush was optimistic that these problems could be overcome with research. In his 2006 State of the Union address, he announced the U.S. government\'s hydrogen fuel initiative, which complements the President\'s existing FreedomCAR initiative for safe and cheap hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. Critics charge that focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles. See The Hype about Hydrogen. The Clinton administration helped industry develop a 72 mpg diesel hybrid, the Dodge ESX3, which is far closer to energy freedom, because it can run on biodiesel made from sea water algae. Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. Hydrogen internal combustion cars burn hydrogen directly, with no other fuels and produce pure water vapor exhaust. The problem with these cars is the hydrogen fuel that can be stored in a normal size tank is used up rapidly. A full tank of hydrogen, in the gaseous state, would last only a few miles before the tank is empty. However, methods are being developed to reduce tank space, such as storing condensed (liquid) hydrogen or using metal hydrides in the tank. In 1807, François Isaac de Rivaz built the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion vehicle. However, the design was very unsuccessful. It\'s estimated that more than a thousand hydrogen powered vehicles were produced in Germany before the end of the WWII prompted by the acute shortage of oil. BMW\'s CleanEnergy internal combustion hydrogen car has more power and is faster than hydrogen fuel cell electric cars. A BMW hydrogen car ( H2R[2]) broke the speed record for hydrogen cars at 300 km/h (186 mi/h), making automotive history. Mazda has developed Wankel engines to burn hydrogen. The Wankel uses a rotary principle of operation, so the hydrogen burns in a different part of the engine from the intake. This reduces intake backfiring, a risk with hydrogen fueled piston engines. However the major car companies like DaimlerChrysler and General Motors Corp, are investing in the slower, weaker, but more efficient hydrogen fuel cells instead. An existing conventional car sleeps in a converter to run on hydrogen, or a mixture of hydrogen and other gasses as produced in a reforming process. Since hydrogen can burn in a very wide range of air/fuel mixtures, a small amount of hydrogen can also be used to ignite various liquid fuels in existing internal combustion engines under extremely lean burning conditions. This process requires a number of modifications to existing engine air/fuel and timing controls. Roy McAlister of the American Hydrogen Association has been demonstrating these conversions. Other renewable energy sources, like biodiesel, are also practical for existing automobile conversions, but come with their own host of problems. Hydrogen fuel cell cars only emit water. In 2005 an Israeli company claimed it succeeded in conquering most of the problems related to producing Hydrogen internal combustion engine by using a device called a Metal-Steam combustor that separates Hydrogen out of heated water. A tip of a Magnesium or Aluminum coil is inserted into the small Metal-Steam combustor together with water where it is heated to very high temperatures. The metal atoms bond with the Oxygen from the water, creating metal oxide. As a result, the Hydrogen molecules become free, and are sent into the engine alongside the steam. The solid waste product of the process, in the form of metal oxide, will later be collected in the fuel station and recycled for further use by the metal industry. The problem is that it takes a lot of energy to make the Magnesium or Aluminum coils. Outside of specialty and small-scale uses, the primary target for the widespread application of fuel cells (hydrogen, zinc, other) is the transportation sector; however, to be economically and environmentally feasible, any fuel cell based engine would need to be more efficient from well head-to-wheel, than what currently exists. At the time of this writing, hydrogen fuel cells are roughly equivalent to gasoline combustion, in terms of energy efficiency and pollution; however, if the (energy and pollution) costs in the production of the fuel cell are considered, hydrogen is sorely behind. Other fuel cell technologies (i.e. zinc-air), are currently ahead of gasoline combustion in energy efficiency, and hydrogen in terms of production costs and safety, but have been widely overlooked by the advocates of gasoline combustion alternatives. The F-Cell is a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle developed by DaimlerChrysler. Two different versions are known - the current one based on the Mercedes-Benz A-Class, and a concept vehicle for a future version based on the Mercedes-Benz B-Class. The first generation F-Cell was introduced in 2002, and had a range of 100 miles, with a top speed of 82 miles per hour. There are 60 F-Cell vehicles leased to customers in the USA, Europe, Singapore and Japan. The future, B-Class based F-Cell has a more powerful electric engine rated at 100kW (134 horsepower), and a range of about 250 miles. This improvement in range is due in part to the B-Class\'s greater space for holding tanks of compressed hydrogen, higher storage pressure, as well as fuel cell technology advances. Both cars have made use of a \"sandwich\" design concept, aimed at maximizing room for both passengers and the propulsion components. The fuel cell is a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), designed by Ballard Power Systems. The Honda FCX is a hydrogen fuel cell automobile manufactured by Honda. It is a two-door, four-seat vehicle, with a range of 170 miles, and is said to be entirely silent in operation. The city of San Francisco leased two FCXs in 2005, as part of an initiative to provide city officials with clean transportation. The 2005 FCX uses front-wheel drive and has a maximum output of 107 horsepower and 201 foot-pounds of torque. The type of fuel cell used is a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. Honda originally only leased the FCX to certain corporate and government entities. On 29 June 2005 Honda leased an FCX to its first non-commercial customer; Jon and Sandy Spallino of Redondo Beach, California. The FCX requires a big step up to the interior due to the engine mounted beneath the seats but has features like traction control, cruise control, automatic climate control, CD player, power windows, power locks and power heated mirrors. The FCX seats four adults comfortably. The only thing new for 2006 versions available for lease is the Satellite Navigation System. At the 2006 Detroit Auto Show, Honda announced that it would make a production version of the concept FCX it had shown at the 2005 Tokyo Motor Show, and that production is expected to begin in 3-4 years. The production version will closely resemble the concept, although it is unknown if some of the concept\'s more radical features, such as a tilting instrument panel, will be included. Honda also plans to offer a Home Energy Station (HES) that will convert natural gas into hydrogen. The homeowner can then use the resulting hydrogen to fuel either the FCX car or the HES\'s built-in hydrogen fuel cell, providing up to 5 kW of normal or backup electricity and/or hot water for the home. A fuel cell produces electricity by converting the chemical energy of fuel directly to power in a controlled chemical reaction - without combustion and without moving parts. Fuel cells are therefore inherently ultra clean, highly efficient and reliable. Fuel cells are now rapidly approaching commercialisation. Fuel cells have just started to cross the bridge from research and demonstration to the point where they are becoming economically competitive with conventional power generation technologies. Practical, competitive fuel cell systems have recently become available and today stationary fuel cell generators are providing power to hundreds of buildings across the world and cost are reducing. Daimler-Benz and Toyota launched prototype fuel cell powered cars in May and October 1996 and the cities of Chicago and Vancouver will introduce small fleets of prototype commercial fuel cell buses over the next two years. Fuel Cells are not a new idea. The principle was discovered over 150 years ago by a Welsh judge Sir William Grove. But until very recently their use has been confined to the laboratory and to exotic applications such as space travel. They were used for the Apollo programme and are being used on the space shuttle. Recently interest in fuel cells has increased sharply and progress towards commercialisation has accelerated. Today practical, competitive fuel cell systems are becoming available and will take a growing share of the markets for power generation equipment and heavy-duty vehicles. The London Financial Times stated that \"...recent progress in cutting the costs and improving the performance of fuel cells has been so rapid that there really does seem to be a good prospect of the technology going into mass production as a clean energy source in the next century, both for moving vehicles and for stationary power generation”. Fuel cells are inherently clean and efficient and are uniquely able to address the issues of energy security and environmental degradation. Now market experience is showing that the technology provides a range of critical benefits that no other single power generation technology can match. A fuel cell converts energy directly, without combustion, by combining hydrogen and oxygen electrochemically to produce water, electricity, and heat. Fuelled with pure hydrogen, they produce no pollutant emissions. Even if fuelled with natural gas as a source of hydrogen, emissions are negligible: 0.45 ppm NOx, 2 ppm CO, 4 ppm HC, which are orders of magnitude below those for conventional combustion generating equipment. They offer significant improvements in energy efficiency as they remove the intermediate step of combustion and mechanical devices such as turbines and pistons. Unlike conventional systems their high efficiency is not compromised by small sizes. Also, unlike conventional plant, they operate at high efficiency at part load. Fuel cell cogeneration plants have demonstrated unprecedented reliability and durability that is significantly better than conventional competitive equipment. The absence of combustion and moving parts means that fuel cells can run continuously for long periods of time before servicing and that they are far less prone to breakdown or forced outages. A number of fuel cell systems (the ONSI PC25) operating in \"real world” commercial conditions have run continuously at full power for more than a year and over thirty have exceeded six months. Fuel cells promote energy security as they can use hydrogen derived from a variety of sources, including natural gas, propane, coal and renewables such as biomass or, through electrolysis, wind and solar energy. Fuel cells offer utilities the opportunity to provide customers with an added value energy service that is not subject to the same competitive or regulatory pressures as exist for electric supply and can do so at an overall lower cost. Worldwide over 150 demonstration plants have been installed. These represent around 40MW of electrical generating capacity. Nearly 75% is installed in Japan, over 15% in North America and 9% in Europe. The US based International Fuel Cells (IFC) and their partner Toshiba are responsible for producing over 70%, Fuji over 25% and Mitsubishi about 2% (WFCC analysis). These phosphoric acid (PAFC) systems are operating in \"real world” commercial situations and have clearly demonstrated their suitability for on-site cogeneration. JAPAN has the largest number of units installed. These systems now include: An 11MW distributed power plant installed at Tokyo Electric by IFC/Toshiba A 5MW \"urban energy centre” at Kansai Electric by Fuji A 1MW cogeneration plant installed at Tokyo Gas by Toshiba Three 500kW plants installed at Osaka Gas by Fuji Over 100 plants of between 50 and 200kW supplied by IFC, Toshiba, Fuji & Mitsubishi. International Fuel Cells (IFC) IFC is currently the only US producer of fuel cell systems that are commercially available. The company supplies the fuel cell generators used on NASA\'s fleet of space shuttle orbiters and supplied fuel cells for the Apollo programme, as well as for Skylab and the joint Apollo/Soyuz missions. Early in the 1990s IFC and Toshiba set-up ONSI to produce small scale on-site commercial cogeneration plant of less than 1MW to address the most attractive early entry market for fuel cells. In Europe, Germany is providing a leading role and by the end of 1997 at least ten PC25s will have been installed and in operation. Interest has also been shown in Spain, France and Switzerland. Vattenfall in Sweden has placed an order for a second PC25. CLC is promoting a 9 MW PAFC plant that would operate on waste hydrogen at the chloralkaline plant at Assemini. Chlor-alkaline plants produce hydrogen as a by-product of the electrolysis process used to manufacture chlorine. In most cases the hydrogen is burnt to provide steam for the factory. CLC is investigating the opportunity to use the waste hydrogen to fuel a PAFC to produce high value electricity as well as process steam. An analysis has shown that even at current prices it would yield a satisfactory return in this application. Where hydrogen is available, PAFCs are able to produce electricity and process steam more effiently and at lower capital cost than other fuel cell technologies. In addition, the efficiency of PAFCs rises to 45 to 48% with electrolytically derived hydrogen and oxygen used to enrich the fuel and air. The development of a hydrogen supply infrastructure will provide PAFCs and other low temperature fuel cells with a significant advantage over other types of fuel cell and conventional technologies. The ultimate clean vehicle will be an electric vehicle powered by a hydrogen-fuelled fuel cell. A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) powered by hydrogen offers the zero emission benefits of battery powered vehicles but avoids the range, recharging, weight and cost penalties associated with batteries. A number of fuels are being considered as alternatives to pure hydrogen. Methanol and gasoline are options under development but these fuels require an on-board fuel processor to extract hydrogen from the fuel. Vehicle emissions produced with the use of these fuels though not absolutely zero would be negligible compared to the use of these fuels in an internal combustion engine. FCVs are projected to attain efficiencies of 35-40% after thermal and parasitic power loses are taken into account. In the case of ICE vehicles only about 10% of the potential energy in the fuel is converted into useful work during urban driving, rising to about 20% for open road driving. The US is driving commercialisation of fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). The California Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) mandate is forcing the development of a market for clean vehicles. Although the state\'s Air Resources Board has decided to delay the 1998 ZEV mandate they have retained the 10% mandate for 2003. In addition the board will rely on contracts with major auto manufacturers to put a few thousand electric vehicles on the road over the next few years. The US government has launched a number of initiatives, including the Department of Energy\'s \"National Program Plan for Fuel Cells in Transportation” and President Clinton\'s \"Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicle”. This is an agreement between the government and the Big Three automakers to develop a super clean and efficient car for the next century. Buses refuse trucks and delivery vans will be the first to enter the market. They are significant and highly visible and sensitive sources of emissions in urban areas. They use central fuelling depots that facilitate the use of hydrogen. They can support a higher purchase price for a fuel cell power system due to lower maintenance costs and avoidance of infrastructure costs associated with trams/streetcars and trolley bus electrification. The first Department of Energy (DOE) prototype fuel cell bus was launched in 1994 and a further two have been produced. Second generation buses are now under development and contracts for a new 135hp-methanol fuel cell engines have been awarded to Ballard and IFC. Work is scheduled for completion in 1998. The engine could be used to power small buses or be used as part of a hybrid system powering heavy-duty buses. In addition, the DOE has a major programme to develop light-duty FCVs. Project teams include General Motors (and their own Delphi division) and Ballard; Ford, IFC and MTI; and Chrysler and Allied Signal/ Delphi. Proof-of-concept vehicles are expected by 1999. A variety of other fuel cell vehicles are under development. The US DoD is developing fuel cells for mobile generation and to power jeeps and heavy-duty vehicles. The Navy is examining fuel cells for shipboard power. The coast Guard is considering a fuel cell powered cutter. Energy Partners have produced a prototype fuel cell utility vehicle (Gator) and a golf cart, as have other research organisations. Ballard of Canada leads development of proton exchange fuel cells (PEMFC) for vehicles. They launched the world´s first commercial prototype zero emission fuel cell bus in 1995. The 40-foot transit bus meets the same performance standards as a diesel equivalent and will have a range of 250 miles and a top speed of 60 mph. The 275hp fuel cell power plant will occupy the same space as the diesel engine it replaces. The cities of Chicago and Vancouver will each demonstrate three Ballard buses in their public transport systems in 1996/97. Upon successful completion of the fleet trial, the Chicago Transit Authority will consider converting its 2500 bus fleet to fuel cell engines as these become due for replacement. The company expects to start production of commercial buses in 1998. It is understood that the cost then will be roughly twice that of a conventional diesel bus but a fleet will be considerably less expensive than an electric trolley bus system. High value applications, notably in areas with air quality problems, will create an early market. Daimler-Benz lead development of fuel cell powered passenger vehicles. Daimler-Benz and its subsidiary companies DASA, MTU and Dornier are believed to have made a substantial investment in fuel cell research and development. Their interest extends across all power generation and distribution technologies. In April 1994 the company launched a prototype PEMFC van, jointly developed with Ballard. At the time they said that they were within five years of launching a prototype FCV that would be viable for commercial use. In the event, in May1996 they launched a second-generation vehicle (NeCar II) based on their new 6­seater V-class Mercedes multi-pupose vehicle. In the original van the entire cargo area was needed to package the fuel cell system, in NeCar II the fuel cells are contained in a small compartment under the rear seat with no sacrifice of passenger space. Daimler-Benz has been working on the NeCar project for five years. In the development process they and Ballard have been able to increase fuel cell power density by a factor of five. Daimler-benz plans to base their next prototype on the new compact Mercedes A-Class car. Further significant reductions in fuel cell system size and cost will be needed before this will be possible. The prototype is to include a fuel cell processor to allow the use of methanol that Daimler-Benz believes will be the fuel of choice for light duty vehicles. The company did not set a target date for the launch of this car but did say \"...maybe we will again be able to present you with the results earlier than you expect\". In April 1997 Daimler-Benz and Ballard announced a strategic alliance to combine their expertise to develop and market fuel cell engines for automotive applications. The proposed deal is worth more than Can$450m (US$320m). Daimler will own 25% of Ballard Power Systems of Canada, a new engine company will develop fuel cell engines and a third entity will market the engines. Ford develop a zero emission fuel cell car. Announced in April 1997, the hydrogen-fuelled car will be built under the US government initiated Partnership for New Generation of Vehicles and is expected to be ready for evaluation by 2000. The Canadien government has said that it would subsidise Ballard to build a fuel cell that could be used in the Ford vehicle. Mechanical Technologies Inc. and International Fuel Cells are also candidates to supply the fuel cell. It has been reported that IFC will deliver a 50kW fuel cell to Ford in 1997. Ford said that it would use a research vehicle, the P2000, a family-size car body that is under development and is made of aluminium, titanium, composites and other low weight materials making the car 40% lighter than a conventional vehicle. Chrysler plans a gasoline-fuelled fuel cell car. Announced at the January 1997 Detroit Auto Show, Chrysler stated that the fuel cell car will be 50% more fuel efficient than a comparable ICE car, be at least 90% cleaner, require less maintenance and cost no more than a conventional vehicle. They expect to have a working demonstration car by 1999 and production prototypes by 2005, ten years earlier than originally thought possible. Delphi (a GM subsidiary) is working with Chrysler to develop the prototype gasoline fuelled PEM vehicle. Ballard will supply the fuel cell stacks for this project. Delphi are also developing a methanol fuelled PEMFC for GM under a DoE-sponsored project started in 1990. Toyota launch a fuel cell battery hybrid veh

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